Results from research on locus of control in the field of psychology indicate a significant difference as a function of gender and age (Nunn, 1991). The findings indicated that older students were more positive in respect to their self-concept, more internally oriented, more goal oriented, less impulsive, less inclined to move around, preferred more formal learning methods, less anxious about leaning, preferred to learn in a variety of ways, and perceived themselves as abstract thinker. Females exhibited more external locus of control than males, were more anxious about learning, and were oriented more to goals and achievement than males. Younger students were less positive in respect to their self-concept, externally controlled, anxious about learning, less goal and achievement oriented, preferred movement in learning environments, preferred informal learning settings, felt more inclined toward one particular style of learning, and were concrete thinkers (Nunn, 1991). Within the field of Distance Education, the concept of learner control has been explored in terms of control within the distance learning transaction. Baynton (1992) identified six factors that inform our understanding of the distance learning transaction. Three major factors, competence, support and independence, and three minor or complementary factors, time flexibility, value orientation, and access to resources. This investigation into the dimensions of control indicate that this issue is complex and the overarching concept of control yields a "richer, more multidimensional description" (Baynton, 1992, p. 30). From this research, the older male student would be most likely to be successful in a distance course. The research also indicates that instructors need to know their students. Research conducted by Hannafin (1984) indicates that the amount of control is also impacted by the nature of the learning task and learner characteristics. Hannafin indicates that locus of control needs to be viewed as a continuum. He defines locus of control in terms of external when the learner follows a course dictated by the instructor without exercising any choices. Internal control allows the learner to choose among a range of instructor options. The importance of locus of control or learner control lies with instructors and students. The transaction is two-way, so the more both parties understand the more effective the transaction will be.
STUDY CRITIQUES Critique One Nunn, G. D. (1994). Adult learners' locus of control, self-evaluation and learning temperament as a function of age and gender. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 21 (3), 260-264. Conceptualization Nunn presents a study that examines adult learner differences related to the locus of control, self-evaluation, and learning temperament as a function of gender and age. The author does not define nor explain the major concepts partly because no Literature Review section exists. Nunn refers to the major concepts within the Method section under the subheading Instruments. Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses The abstract states that the study results support a hypothesis that the dependent variables, locus of control, self-evaluation and learning temperament, differ as a function of age and gender; however, no explicitly stated hypotheses exist. Moreover, no explicit research question exists. The introduction implies the study's goal as expanding the research base in order to generate discussion. From this goal, a reader may assume that the nature of this study is exploratory not definitive or validating. Because of the exploratory nature and the absence of a literature review, the relationships among the main variables are nonexistent. This study serves as a discussion springboard, so the emphasis is placed on the Method Section and particularly on the results, to prompt scholarly discussion and guide research in a more profound direction within this area of adult learner characteristics. Research Design Nunn's analysis of variance study used Rotter I-E scale as an instrument to measure locus of control. The dependent variables that were used in the ANOVA design were: locus of control, self-evaluation, and learning temperament. I would have liked more information, specifically an operationalized definition of learning temperament and self-evaluation. The lead-off sentence in Nunn's first paragraph, stating that the three variables have been studied by numerous researchers, does not convince me of their importance and inclusion in the study. The lack of a literature review section poignantly is missed. Nunn fails to provide a rationale for choosing two-way ANOVA and therefore the design itself. He does provide the test-retest reliability of his own scale the Assessment of Learning Temperament. The Personal Attribute Inventory, along with Rotter I-E scale and the Assessment of Learning Temperament appear to be instruments appropriate to measure the variables. I'm not familiar with the Personal Attribute Inventory, so a track record would have secured more confidence for me than the citation from Educational and Psychological Measurement. The number of subjects and given demographics, represents an appropriate sample for the target population. Based on the study's sampling alone, excluding the data analysis technique, the external validity would be sound. Results and Discussion The results are congruous with intuition based on principles of developmental psychology. The presentation of data is adequately described, but I would have preferred more graphical data presentations like Nunn's Figure 1. However, he does provide a summary table that aids the reader very nicely. Nunn very explicitly places his results in the context of tentative collection of information to describe an adult learner and encourages further research be conducted. In other words, he summarizes and does not generalize or purport implications. Summary Nunn obtains the objective or goal he intended, an exploratory study to prompt more discussion and further research. I would have preferred a longer article with the inclusion of a literature review. His sample size is the strength of his study. He contributes evidence to the issue of learner differences. He is successful even if someone disproves or contradicts his summary of findings because he would have successfully prompted more research and stimulated more learner characteristics discussion.
Critique Two Baynton, M. (1992). Dimensions of "Control" in Distance Education: A Factor Analysis. The American Journal of Distance Education, 6 (2), 17-31. Conceptualization Baynton's factor analysis study examines whether the elements of independence, competence, and support may be considered as the underpinning structure within the distance learning transaction. She adapts a model generated by Garrison and Baynton (1987) to illustrate the concept of control in an educational transaction. The three elements comprising the major concepts are defined using this model of control. Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses The purpose of this study is to explore a model of the distance learning transaction that uses control as the organizing concept. Therefore, the author does not state a research question or hypotheses. The relationships among the variables are described and illustrated in a figure. The visual impact of the concept graphic would be strengthened if either the use of lines and geometric figures were explained or a legend provided. I would prefer to see the relationships illustrated in an hierarchical representation, so I could discern the dynamics between the elements and players. Research Design Baynton uses the statistical technique of factor analysis to explore the control model and the three dimensions of control. Open-ended questions were used to flesh out other variables that learners perceive as part of the learning process. The author does a good job defining the variables and concepts within her study. Using factor analysis is a good choice for handling the data and has been a method used repeatedly in psychological and sociological studies. She very thoroughly discussed the questionnaire instrument and had an external panel conduct a content validity plus pretested the instrument on adult learners. The population of teleconference and home-study students is an appropriate sampling of the distance learner population. The author provides demographics relative to level of education obtained but does not provide gender or age information. External validity may be assumed valid if the sampling is not age or gender biased. Previous studies have shown age and gender differences relative to control issues exist. Results and Discussion She thoroughly discusses the data analysis and provides a table displaying the results. These findings and techniques are adequately discussed. The absence of age and gender demographics could be considered uncontrolled variables if the sampling is not representative in these two variables. Her conclusions are consistent with the results of the statistical analyses. The evolution of the model is very informative and strengthens the study results. The study implications are clear because the visual representations show the dynamics which support her conclusions. She states the limitations of her study in respect to the exploratory nature of the design and calls for further research to continue investigating the underlying factors within a distance learning environment. Summary I found this study interesting because of the use of factor analysis and a concept model. I found the technique of evolving the model, as a result of the findings, very powerful. The only flaw I found threatening the external validity is the lack of subject information in respect to age and gender. Her contribution to conceptual literature about the dimensions of control within a distance learning transaction is valuable to distance education instructors and researchers.
References Baynton, M. (1992). Dimensions of "Control" in Distance Education: A Factor Analysis. The American Journal of Distance Education, 6 (2), 17-31. Garrison, D. R. & Baynton M. (1987). Beyond independence in distance education: The concept of control. The American Journal of Distance Education, 1 (3), 3-15. Nunn, G. D. (1994). Adult learners' locus of control, self-evaluation and learning temperament as a function of age and gender. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 21 (3), 260-264 Return to Home Page
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